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A Review of Chinese History and Qing China

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Aspect of history

The history of opium in Cathay began with the use of opium for medicinal purposes during the seventh century. In the 17th century the practise of mixing opium with tobacco for smoking spread from Southeast Asia, creating a far greater need.[1]

Opium imports into China 1650–1880.svg

Imports of opium into China stood at 200 chests annually in 1729,[1] when the first anti-opium edict was promulgated.[ii] [3] By the fourth dimension Chinese government reissued the prohibition in starker terms in 1799,[4] the figure had leaped; 4,500 chests were imported in the year 1800.[1] The decade of the 1830s witnessed a rapid ascension in opium trade,[5] and by 1838, merely before the Commencement Opium War, information technology had climbed to 40,000 chests.[5] The rise connected on after the Treaty of Nanking (1842) that concluded the war. By 1858 annual imports had risen to 70,000 chests (4,480 long tons (4,550 t)), approximately equivalent to global product of opium for the decade surrounding the yr 2000.[6]

By the late 19th century Chinese domestic opium production challenged and then surpassed imports. The 20th century opened with effective campaigns to suppress domestic farming, and in 1907 the British regime signed a treaty to eliminate imports. The autumn of the Qing dynasty in 1911, nonetheless, led to a resurgence in domestic product. The Nationalist Government, provincial governments, the revolutionary bases of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), and the British colonial authorities of Hong Kong all depended on opium taxes equally major sources of revenue, every bit did the Japanese occupation governments during the 2nd Sino-Japanese State of war (1937–1945).[7] [eight] After 1949, both the corresponding governments of the People's Republic of Communist china on the mainland and of the Commonwealth of China on Taiwan claimed to accept successfully suppressed the widespread growth and apply of opium.[nine] In fact, opium products were still in product in Xinjiang and Northeast Cathay.[10] [11]

Early history [edit]

Historical accounts advise that opium showtime arrived in China during the Tang dynasty (618–907) as role of the merchandise of Arab traders.[12] Afterward on, Song Dynasty (960–1279) poet and pharmacologist Su Dongpo recorded the utilize of opium as a medicinal herb: "Daoists often persuade yous to beverage the jisu water, but even a child tin can prepare the yingsu [A] soup."[xiii]

Initially used by medical practitioners to command bodily fluid and preserve qi or vital force, during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), the drug likewise functioned as an aphrodisiac or chunyao ( 春药 ) as Xu Boling records in his mid-fifteenth century Yingjing Juan:

Information technology is mainly used to treat masculinity, strengthen sperm, and regain vigour. It enhances the fine art of alchemists, sexual activity and courtroom ladies. Frequent use helps to cure the chronic diarrhea that causes the loss of energy ... Its price equals that of gold.[xiii]

Ming rulers obtained opium via the tributary system, when information technology was known as wuxiang ( 烏香 ) or "black spice". The Collected Statutes of the Ming Dynasty record gifts to successive Ming emperors of up to 100 kilograms (220 lb) of wuxiang amongst tribute from the Kingdom of Siam, which also included frankincense, costus root, pepper, ivory, rhinoceros horn and peacock feathers.

First listed as a taxable commodity in 1589[ citation needed ], opium remained legal until the end of Ming dynasty, 1637.[ commendation needed ]

Growth of the opium trade [edit]

In the 16th century the Portuguese became enlightened of the lucrative medicinal and recreational merchandise of opium into China, and from their factories across Asia chose to supply the Canton System, to satisfy both the medicinal and the recreational apply of the drug. By 1729 the Yongzheng Emperor had criminalised the new recreational smoking of opium in his empire. Following the 1764 Boxing of Buxar, the British East India Visitor (EIC) gained command of tax collection, along with the former Mughal Empire opium monopoly in the province of Bengal. The E India Company Act, 1793 formally establlished this monopoly.[14] The EIC was £28 million in debt every bit a event of the Indian war and the insatiable demand for Chinese tea in the British marketplace, which had to exist paid for in silver.[15] [sixteen]

To redress the imbalance, the EIC began auctions of opium, which was gathered in taxes, in Calcutta. Profits soared. Since importation of opium into China had been banned by Chinese police force, the EIC established an indirect trading scheme partially relying on legal markets and leveraging illicit ones. British merchants would buy tea in County (Guangzhou) on credit, and residue their debts by selling opium at auction in Calcutta, then send it to the Chinese coast aboard British ships, sell information technology to native merchants who would sell it in Communist china. According to 19th Century sinologist Edward Parker, at that place were four types of opium smuggled into China from India: kung pan t'ou (公班土, gongban tu or "Patna"); Pak t'ou (白土, bai tu or "Malwa"); Western farsi, Kem fa t'ou (金花土, jinhua tu) and the "smaller kong pan", which was of a "dearer sort", i.east. more expensive.[17] A description of the cargo aboard Hercules at Lintin in July 1833 distinguished between "new" and "old" Patna, "new" and "onetime" Benares, and Malwa; the accounting likewise specifies the number of chests of each blazon, and the cost per chest. The "chests"[B] independent small balls of opium that had originated in the Indian provinces of Bengal and Madras.

In 1797 the EIC farther tightened its grip on the opium merchandise by enforcing direct trade between opium farmers and the British, and ending the role of Bengali purchasing agents. British exports of opium to China grew from an estimated xv long tons (fifteen,000 kg) in 1730 to 75 long tons (76,000 kg) in 1773 shipped in over two thousand chests.[eighteen] The Jiaqing Emperor issued a decree banning imports of the drug in 1799. While China had trade relations with U.k., in social club to residuum fiscal books between the 2 Britain sold China opium from India which added to availability of opium in China's lodge.[19] By 1804 the merchandise deficit had turned into a surplus, leading to seven million silver dollars going to India between 1806 and 1809. Meanwhile, Americans entered the opium trade with less expensive simply inferior Turkish opium and past 1810 had effectually 10% of the merchandise in County.[16] The EIC opium processed in Patna and Benares was supplemented in the 1820s with opium from Malwa in the non-British controlled part of India. Competition drove prices down, but production was stepped up.[xx]

In the same year the Emperor issued a farther edict:

Opium has a impairment. Opium is a poison, undermining our good customs and morality. Its apply is prohibited by law. Now the commoner, Yang, dares to bring information technology into the Forbidden City. Indeed, he flouts the law! Notwithstanding, recently the purchasers, eaters, and consumers of opium have become numerous. Deceitful merchants buy and sell it to gain profit....If we confine our search for opium to the seaports, we fear the search will not be sufficiently thorough. Nosotros should likewise gild the general commandant of the police and police- censors at the five gates to prohibit opium and to search for it at all gates. If they capture any violators, they should immediately punish them and should destroy the opium at in one case. As to Kwangtung (Guangdong) and Fukien (Fujian), the provinces from which opium comes, we club their viceroys, governors, and superintendents of the maritime customs to conduct a thorough search for opium, and cut off its supply.[21]

The decree had little effect. By Qianlong's fourth dimension opium had become a mainstream recreation among scholars and officials, and by the 1830s the practice had become widespread in cities. The increase in popularity was a result of both social and economical shifts betwixt the Ming and the Qing dynasties in which there was a boost in commercialization, consumerism, and urbanization of opium within the general public.[22] "Opium," says ane contempo scholar, became "leisurely, urban, cultured and a condition symbol" as an bear witness of wealth, leisure, and culture.[23] The Qing authorities, far away in Beijing, was unable to halt opium smuggling in the southern provinces. A porous Chinese border and rampant local demand facilitated the trade. Past 1838 there were millions of Chinese opium users--opium was the main hurting killer in a pre-aspirin historic period. They were less reliable workers and the silvery they sent abroad was hurting the economy. [24] More and more Chinese were smoking British opium as a recreational drug. Merely for many, what started as recreation presently became a punishing habit: many people who stopped ingesting opium suffered chills, nausea, and cramps, and sometimes died from withdrawal. In one case fond, people would often do near annihilation to continue to get access to the drug.[25] Therefore the Daoguang Emperor demanded action. Officials at the court who advocated legalizing and taxing the trade were defeated past those who advocated suppressing it. The Emperor sent the leader of the hard line faction, Special Imperial Commissioner Lin Zexu, to County, where he quickly arrested Chinese opium dealers and summarily demanded that strange firms plough over their stocks with no bounty. When they refused, Lin stopped merchandise birthday and placed the foreign residents under virtual siege in their factories, eventually forcing the merchants to give up their opium. Lin destroyed the confiscated opium, a total of some i,000 long tons (i,016 t), a process which took 23 days.[26]

Showtime Opium War [edit]

Red china'southward crackdown on the use of opium clashed with Britain, which advocated for free merchandise as British merchants were the source of trading opium into Red china. In compensation for the opium destroyed by Commissioner Lin, British traders demanded compensation from their abode regime. This put pressure on India from China as the overwhelming demand for opium was straining as the fixed supply simply no longer reached demands.[27] However, British authorities believed that the Chinese were responsible for payment and sent expeditionary forces from Republic of india, which defeated the Qing army and navy in a series of battles and brought China to the negotiating table.[28] The 1842 Treaty of Nanking non only opened the way for further opium merchandise, but ceded the territory of Hong Kong, unilaterally fixed Chinese tariffs at a low rate, gave Britain most favored nation status and permitted them diplomatic representation. Three 1000000 dollars in compensation for debts that the Hong merchants in County owed British merchants for the destroyed opium was as well to exist paid under Article V.[29]

Second Opium War [edit]

Despite the new ports available for trade under the Treaty of Nanking, by 1854 Britain's imports from China had reached nine times their exports to the land. At the same time British imperial finances came under further pressure from the expense of administering the burgeoning colonies of Hong Kong and Singapore in addition to India. But the latter's opium could residual the deficit.[xxx] Along with various complaints nigh the treatment of British merchants in Chinese ports and the Qing government's refusal to take further foreign ambassadors, the relatively minor "Arrow Incident" provided the pretext the British needed to expand their opium trade in Prc.

The Arrow was a merchant lorcha with an expired British registration that the Qing authorities seized for alleged table salt smuggling. British authorities complained to the Governor-general of Liangguang, Ye Mingchen, that the seizure breached Article 9 of the 1843 Treaty of the Bogue with regard to extraterritoriality. Matters rapidly escalated and led to the 2d Opium War, sometimes referred to as the "Arrow War" or the "Second Anglo-Chinese State of war", which bankrupt out in 1856. A number of clashes followed until the war concluded with the signature of the Treaty of Tientsin in 1860.[31] Although the new treaty did not expressly legalise opium, it opened a farther 5 ports to merchandise and for the showtime fourth dimension allowed foreign traders access to the vast hinterland of People's republic of china beyond the coast.

Aftermath of the Opium Wars [edit]

The treaties with the British soon led to similar arrangements with the United States and France. These later became known as the Diff Treaties, while the Opium Wars, according to Chinese historians, represented the commencement of China's "Century of humiliation".

The opium trade faced intense enmity from the afterwards British Prime number Minister William Ewart Gladstone.[32] As a member of Parliament, Gladstone called it "nigh infamous and atrocious" referring to the opium merchandise between China and British India in item.[33] Gladstone was fiercely confronting both of the Opium Wars and ardently opposed to the British trade in opium to China.[34] He lambasted information technology as "Palmerston'due south Opium War" and said that he felt "in dread of the judgments of God upon England for our national iniquity towards People's republic of china" in May 1840.[35] Gladstone criticized information technology as "a war more unjust in its origin, a war more than calculated in its progress to cover this country with permanent disgrace,".[36] His hostility to opium stemmed from the effects of opium brought upon his sis Helen.[37] Due to the First Opium war brought on past Palmerston, in that location was initial reluctance to join the regime of Peel on part of Gladstone earlier 1841.[38]

Domestication and suppression in the last decades of the Qing dynasty [edit]

Chinese opium smokers c. 1858

Once the turmoil caused by the mid-century Taiping Rebellion died down, the economy came to depend on opium to play several roles. Merchants plant the substance useful equally a substitute for cash, as it was readily accepted in the interior provinces such every bit Sichuan and Yunnan while the drug weighed less than the equivalent amount of copper. Since poppies could be grown in almost any soil or weather, tillage quickly spread. Local officials could then meet their tax quotas past relying on poppy growers even in areas where other crops had not recovered. Although the government continued to require suppression, local officials often just went through the motions both because of bribery and because they wanted to avert antagonizing local farmers who depended on this lucrative ingather. One official complained that when people heard a government inspector was coming, they would just pull up a few poppy stalks to spread by the side of the road to give the appearance of complying. A provincial governor observed that opium, once regarded as a toxicant, was now treated in the aforementioned way equally tea or rice. In the Qing dynasty all aspects of society had been affected by opium past the 1800s.[39] Recreational use of opium expanded to all areas of Cathay from the urban inland to the rural county sides. It as well filtered downwards from the urban elites and middle grade to the lower, working course citizens.[forty] Past the 1880s, fifty-fifty governors who had initially suppressed opium smoking and poppy production now depended on opium taxes.

Red china opium den, circa 1896

The historian Jonathan Spence notes that the damage opium caused has long been clear, merely that in a stagnating economy, opium supplied fluid majuscule and created new sources of taxes. Smugglers, poor farmers, coolies, retail merchants and officials all depended on opium for their livelihood. In the last decade of the dynasty, still, a focused moral outrage overcame these vested interests.[41]

I

1908 opium production by province in "piculs." A picul is equal to 133.33 lbs.

When the Qing government launched new opium suppression campaigns afterward 1901, the opposition no longer came from the British, whose sales had suffered greatly from domestic contest in any case, just from Chinese farmers who would be wiped out past the loss of their virtually profitable ingather-derivative. Further opposition to the authorities moves came from wholesalers and retailers every bit well as from the millions of opium users, many of whom came from influential families.[42] The government persevered, creating farther dissent amongst the people, and at the same time promoted cooperation with international anti-narcotic agencies. Nevertheless, despite the imposition of new coating import duties under the 1902 Mackay Treaty, Indian opium remained exempt and taxable at 110 taels per breast with the treaty stating "there was no intention of interfering with Mainland china'due south right to tax native opium".[43]

The International Opium Commission observed that opium smoking was a stylish, even refined pastime, peculiarly among the young, yet many in lodge condemned the habit.[44]At this time the human action of opium smoking was prevalent among students, soldiers, urban eye class, and wealthier peasants. 1 of the most influential groups was the sex activity industry that dominated the scene as the combination of both opium smoking and sexual practice was the favoured pastime.[45] In 1907 Great Britain signed a treaty agreeing to gradually eliminate opium exports to Cathay over the next decade while Mainland china agreed to eliminate domestic production over that menstruation. Estimates of domestic production fell from 35,000 metric tons (34,000 long tons) in 1906 to 4,000 metric tons (3,900 long tons) in 1911.

Republican China [edit]

The combination of foreign and domestic efforts proved largely successful, but the autumn of the Qing government in 1911 effectively meant the end of the anti-opium campaign. Local and provincial governments quickly turned back to opium every bit a source of revenue, and foreign governments no longer felt obliged to go along their efforts to eliminate the trade.[46]

Opium Smokers in illegal den, Beijing (1932)

In the northern provinces of Ningxia and Suiyuan in Cathay, Chinese Muslim General Ma Fuxiang both prohibited and engaged in the opium trade. It was hoped that Ma Fuxiang would have improved the state of affairs, since Chinese Muslims were well known for opposition to smoking opium.[47] Ma Fuxiang officially prohibited opium and made it illegal in Ningxia, but the Guominjun reversed his policy; past 1933, people from every level of society were abusing the drug, and Ningxia was left in destitution.[48] In 1923, an officer of the Banking concern of Red china from Baotou institute out that Ma Fuxiang was assisting the drug trade in opium which helped finance his military machine expenses. He earned $2 million from taxing those sales in 1923. Full general Ma had been using the bank, a branch of the Regime of Red china's exchequer, to arrange for argent currency to be transported to Baotou to use information technology to sponsor the trade.[49]

The Nationalist Government under General Chiang Kai Shek during the Nanjing Decade (1928- 1937) followed contradictory opium policies. Chiang himself was morally opposed to opium apply, simply other government ministers saw opium as a source of much needed revenue. The government beginning attempted to reform the people into proper citizens to conform to the modern standards, then raised the official price, which discouraged a certain number of people, then sometimes shot the recidivists (strangely near one per county).[fifty] Chiang likewise turned to the Green Gang mob dominate Du Yuesheng to head the Shanghai Opium Suppression Agency. Remarked 1 American diplomat, "the existent motive appears to be to increase revenues by cartoon within the orbit of the Opium Suppression Bureau the opium traffic in the Settlement and French Concessions." Prohibition, that is, was a guise to extend the regime opium monopoly. "Suppression" officials talked openly of their duty to realize more opium acquirement for the authorities.[51]

During the Second Sino-Japanese War, to enhance funds, the CCP in the Shaan-Gan-Ning Base of operations Expanse fostered and taxed opium production and dealing, selling to Japanese-occupied and Kuomintang provinces.[7] [8]

Under Mao [edit]

The Mao Zedong government is by and large credited with eradicating both consumption and product of opium during the 1950s using unrestrained repression and social reform.[10] [11] Ten 1000000 addicts were forced into compulsory handling, dealers were executed, and opium-producing regions were planted with new crops. Remaining opium production shifted due south of the Chinese border into the Golden Triangle region.[52] The remnant opium trade primarily served Southeast Asia, simply spread to American soldiers during the Vietnam War, with 20 percentage of soldiers regarding themselves as addicted during the peak of the epidemic in 1971. In 2003, People's republic of china was estimated to have 4 million regular drug users and one one thousand thousand registered drug addicts.[53]

Encounter likewise [edit]

  • Illegal drug trade in China
  • Madak
  • Old Communist china Merchandise
  • Turkey merchant

Notes [edit]

  1. ^

    Yingsu ( 罂粟 ) refers to the poppy, Papaver somniferum, and was used an alternative name for opium.

  2. ^

    A chest of opium independent approximately 100 "catties" or ane "picul", with each catty weighing ane.33 lb (600 g), giving a total of ~140 pounds (64 kg)

References [edit]

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  3. ^ Keswick & Weatherall 2008, p. 65.
  4. ^ Greenberg 1969, p. 29.
  5. ^ a b Greenberg 1969, p. 113.
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  • Zheng, Yangwen (2005). The Social Life of Opium in China. Cambridge Academy Press. ISBN9780521846080.

Farther reading [edit]

  • Dikötter, Frank; Lars, Peter Laamann; Zhou, Xun (2004). Narcotic Civilisation: A History of Drugs in China. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN978-1850657255.
  • Fairbank, John King. Trade and Affairs on the China Coast: The Opening of the treaty ports, 1842-1854 (Cambridge, Harvard U. P, 1953) online.
  • McMahon, Keith (2002). The Fall of the God of Money : Opium Smoking in Nineteenth-Century People's republic of china. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN0742518027.
  • Zhou, Yongming (1999). Anti-Drug Crusades in Twentieth Century People's republic of china: Nationalism, History, and State Edifice. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN9780847695980.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_opium_in_China

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